Unit+4+-+Non-Fiction

Activity 4.1 - Editorials and Standardized Arguments
What is an argument? In a __**general**__ sense, argument is... //**any attempt to give reasons in support of a claim**//, including any effort to evaluate such an attempt by giving reasons for believing that the claim is, or is not, supported.

In a more __**specific**__ sense, argument is... the //**set of propositions composed of an argument's premises and conclusions.**//

A __**proposition**__ in this sense = any statement that has a truth value, i.e.,//**any statement that can be either true or false.**//

Taking an argument in the general sense (the sense we use everyday) and rendering it into the specific sense (because we want to analyze it) requires that we **reframe it in a standardized form**.


 * Standardizing an argument means setting out its premises and conclusions in clear, simple statements with the premises preceding the conclusion**.

There are four steps to this:
 * 1) //**Identification of the reasons (premises) and conclusion. Typically, these are numbered.**//
 * 2) //**Elimination of irrelevant information from the argument. Standardized arguments tend to be more tersely stated than arguments in the general sense.**//
 * 3) //**Inclusion of implied reasons or conclusions. Reasons or conclusions can be implied (that is, not stated explicitly but suggested nevertheless) in the reasoning of the author, so these must be included among the reasons or conclusions that are identified.**//
 * 4) //**Place the conclusion at the bottom of the list.**//

Note: There can often be more than one way to standardize an argument accurately.

Here are a couple of examples of standardized arguments.


 * Original Form**

Contrary to what many people believe, I have concluded that human activity has improved the earth. When you think about it, agricultural development has actually increased the number of existing plant species. It has also resulted in an increase in the number of animal species. We should also at least consider the possibility that human life is itself an improvement within nature.


 * Standardized Form**

1.Agricultural development has actually increased thenumber of existing plant species. 2. Agricultural development has resulted in an increase in the number of animal species. 3. Human life is itself an improvement within nature.

Therefore,

4. Human activity has improved the earth.


 * Original Form**

Women office workers are just as productive as their male counterparts. Since wages should bebased solely on productivity, it seems quite clearthat they should receive the same pay.


 * Standardized Form**

1.Women office workers are just as productiveas their male counterparts. 2. Wages should be based solely on productivity.

Therefore,

3. Men and women office workers should receive the same pay.convergent

Now let's get a little more complex...


 * Original Form**

If students do well on practice exercises then they should do well on the graded tests, because they both cover the same material, and on top of that the questions on them are similar. To be honest, John was totally lost on the practice exercises, so if he doesn't really work at it he could also fail the test.


 * Standardized Form**

1. The graded tests and practice exercises both cover the same material. 2. The questions on the graded tests and practice exercises are similar.

Thus,

3. If students do well on practice exercises then they should do well on the graded test. 4. John was totally lost on the practice exercises,

Therefore,

5. If John doesn't really work at it he could also fail the test.

Unstated Conclusions
Sometimes a conclusion is left unstated and needs to be supplied by the reader/listener.


 * Original Form**

It appears that the plane crash was either due to pilot error or it was simply a tragic chance occurrence, but I don't believe that anything just happens by chance.


 * Standardized Form**

1.Plane crashs happen by chance or due to pilot error. 2. I don't believe in chance.

Therefore,

3. The plane crash was due to pilot error (Unstated Conclusion)

**Missing Premises**
Sometimes Premises are left out of an argument or are assumed to be understood.


 * Original Form**

In fact, the ordinary orange is a miniature chemical factory. And the good old potato contains arsenic among its more than 150 ingredients. This doesn’t mean natural foods are dangerous. If they were, they wouldn’t be on the market.


 * Standardized Form - Explicit**

1. If natural foods such as potatoes and oranges were dangerous, they would not be on the market.

Therefore,

2. Natural foods are not dangerous.


 * Standardized Form - With Missing Premise**

1. If natural foods such as potatoes and oranges were dangerous, they would not be on the market.

3. Natural foods such as potatoes and oranges are on the market.

Therefore,

2. Natural foods are not dangerous.


 * //You can add a missing premise when//**
 * when the new premise is a matter of common knowledge
 * if the wording or context of the argument makes it clear that it is something the arguer would accept.

**Assignment 4.1.1 - Now you try it (U4 Assignment 1)**

 * 1) Find two editorials from a local or national newspaper and standardize them.
 * 2) Post them on your blog.
 * 3) Review and critique the standardized arguments of at least one other class member
 * 4) Revise your standardizations as you see fit.
 * 5) Choose your best one, title it “Standardization Final”, and repost it to your blog.

Assignment 4.1.2 - Logical Fallacy (U4 Assignment 2)
Research one of the following fallacies:
 * Topic || Student ||
 * Ad Hominem ||  ||
 * Ad Hominem Tu Quoque ||  ||
 * Appeal to Authority, ||  ||
 * Appeal to Belief/Tradition ||  ||
 * Appeal to Consequences of a Belief ||  ||
 * Appeal to Fear ||  ||
 * Appeal to Flattery ||  ||
 * Appeal to Novelty ||  ||
 * Appeal to Pity ||  ||
 * Appeal to Popularity ||  ||
 * Appeal to Ridicule ||  ||
 * Begging the Question ||  ||
 * Biased Sample ||  ||
 * Burden of Proof ||  ||
 * Composition ||  ||
 * Confusing Cause and Effect ||  ||
 * False Dilemma ||  ||
 * Gambler's Fallacy ||  ||
 * Genetic Fallacy ||  ||
 * Guilt By Association ||  ||
 * Hasty Generalization ||  ||
 * Ignoring A Common Cause ||  ||
 * Middle Ground ||  ||
 * Misleading Vividness ||  ||
 * Poisoning the Well ||  ||
 * Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc ||  ||
 * Questionable Cause ||  ||
 * Red Herring ||  ||
 * Slippery Slope ||  ||
 * Straw Man ||  ||
 * Two Wrongs Make A Right ||  ||

You will **create a one page handout** outlining the particulars of your fallacies. The handout must include:
 * the syllogism
 * state the latin name (for some this is really obvious, for some not so much)
 * an explanation of why the logic is fallacious, and why you might want to use it anyway
 * two new examples you've created
 * one example from the media (either taken from a newspaper or magazine or a transcript from radio or television)


 * Post the hand out on the Fallacies page of this wiki**